GunnerJ

I need a little help with a college assignment. I have to do a term paper on any subject I choose (so long as it has to do with Western civilization) based on a scholarly article. I've chosen the influence of Mithraism on early Christianity, but I am having trouble finding a scholarly article on the subject. Could anyone give me a hand? (It doesn't quite matter to me what the author's stance is, BTW.)

cloudyphiz

if you buy 'the jesus mysteries' by gandy & freke, the bibliography would be a good place to start.

-gary

Sojourner553

For a good book on the subject, I'd recommend:

Franz Cumont, THE MYSTERIES OF MITHRA, Dover Publications,1956 (which is a
republication of the second revised edition, as published by The Open
Court Publishing Company in 1903).

**********************
I have an internet source. After clicking on the link below: You'll want to pick the following chapters:

In Section IV -- choose Chapter 2 -Part 1 for a general background of the mystery religions,

and Chapter 2 - Part 3 for a specific discussion on Mithraism.

Here is the link:

<a href="http://mac-2001.com/philo/crit/index.html" target="_blank">http://mac-2001.com/philo/crit/index.html</a>

Here is an excerpt from Chapter 2 Part 3:

Mithraism

The Persian god Mithra is believed to have had his origins from the
Hindu deity, Mitra--god of the sun and caretaker of the earth (dating
from around 2000 B.C.E.). In 450 B.C.E., the Persian ruler Artaxerxes,
incorporated Mitra into his country's religion, Zorastrianism and the name was
modified to Mithra. (Mithraism was an offshoot of Zorastrianism, just as
Christianity was originally a sect within Judaism.)

Mithra was held as the son of the Ahura-Mazda, the god of light. In the
philosophical language of his times, he was sometimes referred to as the
Logos that emanated from God, and he who thus shared in His omnipotence.
(Franz Cumont, THE MYSTERIES OF MITHRA, Dover Publications, 1956 p. 140).
The struggle between good and evil on earth was seen in dualistic terms
as the spillover of a powerful divine battle between the Supreme Good
God and the Prince of Darkness. Mithra was the creator, to whom had been
given the task of maintaining order in the universe. (Ibid) He was the
mediator between the unapproachable goodness in the universe in the highest
spheres above, and the human race that suffered and struggled on the earth
below.

According to bas-reliefs found in the ruins of old Mithraic temples,
there are depictions of Mithra being born from a rock--bearing one
torch in one hand and a knife in the other. In some accounts, his birth
was witnessed by shepherds, who offered the divine infant the fruits of
their harvest--and by magii who brought him gifts. In other accounts,
Mithra used his knife to strip leaves from a fig tree from which he made
his garments. He then tested his strength with the god of the Sun, who
was defeated, and gave Mithra a radiant crown.

All versions show Mithra savagely battling with a ferocious bull,
whose blood rejuvenated the earth. In commemoration of this battle,
the Mithraists conducted a blood baptism whereby adherents could cleanse
their sins (which was probably in common with the rites in the Attis and
Cybele cults).

Mithra performed miracles during his stay on earth--such as healing the
sick, casting out devils, and raising the dead. When he believed he had
accomplished his mission on earth, he held a last supper with some of his
closest disciples. After being entombed for three days, he ascended back
to heaven. The followers of Mithra faithfully awaited for his second
coming to Earth, at which time it was believed, he would engage in a ferocious
battle with the evil devil-god, Ahriman. After his victory, the world would be
destroyed, all humanity would be judged, and the "chosen" people would be
led across a burning body of water into a new immortal life.

According to the Mithraists, the heavens were divided into seven spheres,
each of which were identified with a planet. According to the symbolic
representations in the temples, each heavenly sphere were connected by
a kind of ladder, guarded by an angel of God in front of a gate. Only the dead
souls of initiates who knew how to recite special words and chants could
appease the guardians into letting them pass into the next sphere. After
passing each level, the soul was stripped of all its earthly possessions
and desires, until-- at the highest level-- it joined in the divine
presence of the God, Ahura-Mazda. All souls were judged by Mithra. Those
who were judged unworthy were either cast down into a terrible everlasting
hell, or were reincarnated in the form of some lowly animal on earth.

As with the other mystery religions, much of the exact nature of the dogma
and liturgy have been lost, except for fragments. In one surviving hymn,
THE AVESTAN HYMN TO MITHRA, is the stanza how the faithful await his
coming "amid the homage of the meek and lowly". Some scholars believe
they see similarities between Mithraic themes and early Christian stories.
For example, some have noted the parallels between the presence of shepherds
at a miraculous birth, the ascension into heaven after being entombed for
three days (ie Easter), and the Last Supper ritual. During the Mithraists'
rite of the Last Supper , a sacred meal was comprised of secret bread and a
cup of water or wine. Like the Christians, Mithraists used to call each other
"Brother" and address their priests as "Father."

Some fifth century Christian texts imply that there may also have been a
Mithraic myth that spoke of the appearance of a star which would guide
the sun-priests, or Magi towards the birthplace of their savior Mithra.
(Geoffrey Parrinder, WORLD RELIGIONS--FROM ANCIENT HISTORY TO THE PRESENT,
Facts on File Publications, NY, NY,1971 by Hamlyn Publishing Co, p 187)
Some scholars believe they also see similarities between the rock of generation
that gave birth to Mithra, and the rock on which Jesus built his church.

Mithraism apparently imposed a strict ascetic eating and sexual
lifestyle (at least in some locales). Tertullian wrote that the head
priest of the city ("summus pontifex") could only marry once. Tertullian
also wrote that, as with the Christians, the Mithraic cult had their "virgins
and their continents." (Tertullian, DE PRAESCR. HAERET., XL, as cited
by Franz Cumont, op. cit., p 165)

The mysteries of Mithra were introduced into Greece during the time
of Alexander the Great. It gradually gained more influence, reaching its
peak sometime in the third century C.E. The cult appealed especially to
soldiers. Some scholars believe that it was after competition with the
Mithraists, that Christians began to describe themselves as "soldiers for
Christ". (Barbara Walker, THE WOMAN'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MYTHS AND SECRETS
(New York, 1983), pp 663-65)

Women were not allowed to participate in its rites. None of the hundreds
of inscriptions that have been found, ever refer to even one priestess or
woman initiate! Instead, pagan women chose among the other numerous
religions cults--Isis, Diana, Athena, etc. Some historians have speculated
that this exclusion of women, may have been one of the main factors for its
eventual displacement by Christianity. (See Section V, Chapter 3 which
discusses reasons why Christianity eventually succeeded over all other
contemporary religions in the area.)

Celebration of Mithraism in Rome During the Saturnalia

Around 100 B.C.E., the Romans elevated Mithra--the sun god, as one of the
hundreds of Roman gods who were officially worshipped by the State.
There, its worship partially merged with other mystery religions celebrating
Cybele and Attis. In 307 C.E., the Roman Emperor officially designated
Mithra as the "Protector of the Empire." During the late third century,
Mithraism became so popular, that for awhile it appeared as if it would
be the dominant religion in Rome, as opposed to Christianity.

Mithraism (unlike Christianity) attempted to synthesize its doctrines
with the gods and myths of the other pagan religions. In this way, Mithra
later became identified with the Syrian cult of Sol, the god of the Invincible
Sun. The most important celebration of Mithra took place on midnight,
December 25th, following the Roman festival, the Saturnalia. Saturn--the
Roman god of agriculture and planting of crops, was worshipped at an
annual festival that revolved around the winter solstice.

Beginning December 17, a week of festivities would begin whereby the
normally strict, law-abiding Romans were allowed to celebrate in a drunken,
promiscuous manner. (Some modern historians have noted similarities between
the Saturnalia festival and the New Orleans' Mardi Gras.) During the
Saturnalia, all men were declared equal and every one was urged to engage in
mirth and merriment. According to the Roman writer Lucian's report, during
the Saturnalia:

"All business, be it public or private, is forbidden during the feast
days, save such as tends to sport and solace and delight. Let none
follow their avocations saving cooks and bakers.

All men shall be equal, slave and free, rich and poor, with one another.

Anger, resentment, threats, are contrary to law.

No discourse shall be either composed or delivered, except it be witty
and lusty, conducing to mirth and jollity." (The Works of Lucian of
Samosata, Oxford University Press, 1905, Vol. 4, p 114)

The general Saturnalia celebrations were characterized by feasting,
gift-giving and general merriment. Public buildings and private homes were
decorated with trees or boughs (evergreens were a favorite), and often
topped with candles and small gifts.

The Saturnalia began on December 17th and ended on December 23rd. On
December 22, there was a festival of dolls (sigillaria) where earthenware
dolls and toys were given to children (comparable to the Christkindlmarts
held today in Germany and Austria). The Kalend festival immediately began
following the Saturnalia to celebrate the Roman New Year. According to
Libanius, a Greek sophist (4th century C.E.):

"The festival of the Kalends is celebrated everywhere as far as the
limits of the Roman Empire extended...Everywhere may be seen carousals
and well-laden tables...People are not only generous towards themselves,
but also towards their fellow men. A stream of presents pours itself out
on all sides...The Kalends festival banishes all that is connected with
toil, and allows men to give themselves up to undisturbed enjoyment.
From the minds of young people it removes two kinds of dread: The dread
of the schoolmaster and the dread of the stern pedagogue. The slave also
it allows, so far as possible, to breathe the air of freedom...Another
great quality of the festival is that it teaches men not to hold too fast
to their money, but to part with it and let it pass into other hands."

(quoted from Albert J. Menendez, THE DECEMBER WARS, Prometheus Books, 1993,
pp 28-9)

As with the rest of the Roman populace, Mithraists celebrated the
general festival of the Saturnalia. Then, on the last day of the festival--
December 25th--Mithraists celebrated the NATALIS SOLIS INVICTI ("Birthday of
the Invincible Sun"). At midnight, priests clad in long white robes would
ascend the steps of the temple of Mithra, lighting candles and incense. At
this point, the festivities of the proceeding week would formally end, and a
week of religious celebration was formally initiated, in honor of the god of
the sun.

The first day of the religious celebration was on "SUN"day (from which
we get the first day of the week--and the new Christian day of worship).
It was the sacred day in which a special service to Mithra took place that
addressed him as DOMINUS (or "Lord").

Interestingly, when early Christians were confronted with some of the
amazing coincidences between some of their practices to the pagans, they
recognized that these practices were older than Christianity. They concluded
that Satan must have earlier introduced these into the pagan religions to
confuse good Christians. For example, the Christian Father Justin Martyr was
confronted by the fact that the Lord's Supper (Eucharist) was celebrated by
Mithraists, in the same manner as by Christians. Justin attributed this to
the influence of EVIL SPIRITS. Another Church Father, Tertullian in
commenting on similarities between many Church institutions and those in
Mithra worship, declared that "Satan imitates the sacraments of God. (Dei
sacramenta Satanas affectat. DE EXH. CAST., 13.).

Sojourner

[ March 17, 2002: Message edited by: Sojourner553 ]</p>

David Bowden

I would concur and especially emphasize using only the bibliography, and not counting too much on Freke and Gandy's text itself. They're constantly oversimplifying or sensationalizing things, which is unfortunate because they have such an ass-kicking thesis.

Please keep us posted re: your project!

-Wanderer

GunnerJ

While I appriciate the book recommendations, and would like to look into them in the future, I was really looking for an article, not a book, of the type that could be printed in, say, a journal of archeology. I don't expect everyone to do my work for me, but if anyone knows of such a journal or periodical that might have an article on Mithraism, it would be appriciated.

Kosh

Sojourner - is it really necessary to post all
that text when you've already given an online
URL to the same text?

Your contributions here are awesome and more than
welcome, however, last year II had a problem with
disk space, and storage space does have an
economic impact on the organization.

Plus, the whole point of the Web and URLs is to
avoid duplication of information.

Thanks.

David Bowden

Oops. I see you made that clear in your OP. Umm... perhaps scouring the biblio/notes at the end of a book or two on Mithraism would yield a journal source. I'll skim my copy of Freke and Gandy when I get a chance this evening and get back to you with the results.

Are you looking for something especially recent/technical/in English? This <a href="http://www2.evansville.edu/ecoleweb/articles/mithraism.html" target="_blank">web document</a> cites a 1975 collection of papers: Hinnells, J., ed. Mithraic Studies 2 vols. Manchester, 1975. It's older, in a book, and might assume a technical background, but at least it's in English. The same document cites several more recent articles/books in German, Italian, etc. The Jesus Mysteries web site has a <a href="http://www.jesusmysteries.demon.co.uk/links.html" target="_blank">links</a> page that might provide you with some further leads.

Hope this gets things moving in the right direction for you.

-Wanderer

Egoinos

David Ulansey has written a new and apparently very influential theory on Mithras, that the elements long assumed to be part of Mithras' myth - the bull, etc, was part of a complex cosmology based on crop rotation or something...
Its been a while since I read it, but he has a website: <a href="http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html" target="_blank">http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html</a> with an article on it, and is certainly someone to read.

--Egoinos--