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Quote:
Originally Posted by Toto
Quote:
The following phrases are characteristic of Josephus:
(i) At this time there appeared;
(ii) a wise man;
(iii) startling deeds;
(iv) receive the truth with pleasure;
(v) leading men;
(vi) among us;
(vii) those who had loved him; and,
(viii) the tribe of.
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These are hardly so unique to Josephus that they would count as "evidence." And "tribe of Christians" is a typical Eusebian phrase. |
Those arguments are fine for those that like knee jerk responses, but they don't show a knowledge of the issues Price has brought to the topic. Did you read his article?
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a. Now there was about this time, Jesus
The digression and introductory phrase are typical of Josephus. As noted by Steve Mason, "[t]he opening phrase 'about this time' is characteristic of his language in this part of Antiquities, where he is weaving together distinct episodes into a coherent narrative (cf. Ant. 17.19; 18.39, 65, 80; 19.278)." (Mason, Josephus and the New Testament, page 171). Additionally, the use of the simple name "Jesus" favours Josephan authorship. A Christian would be more likely to use the term "Jesus Christ" or "Christ Jesus. In all of Ignatius' seven authentic letters he refers to "Jesus Christ" 112 times, "Christ Jesus" 12 times, "Christ" 4 times, and "Jesus" only 3 times (Robert Grant, The Apostolic Fathers, Vol. 4, page 7). Another example is Polycarp. In his letter he ten times refers to "Jesus Christ" and never once to "Jesus." Though certainly not determinative, this is suggestive and more consistent with authorship by Josephus than a Christian interpolator.
b. A wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man,
Although the phrase "wise man" sounds positive, it almost certainly is not a Christian addition. That it is followed by the obvious interpolation "if it be lawful to call him a man" indicates that the interpolator found the description of Jesus as a "wise man" to be woefully inadequate. So, he remedies this insufficient estimate of Jesus by clarifying that there is good reason to doubt he was just a man. "A Christian scribe would not deny that Jesus was a wise man, but would feel that label insufficient for one who has believed to be God as well as man." (Meier, op. cit., page 60). Mason adds: "As it stands, the reticence to call Jesus a man seems like a rejoinder to the previous, already flattering statement that he was a wise man. It seems more like a qualification of an existing statement than part of a free creation." (Mason, op. cit., page 171; See also France, op. cit., page 30: "Thus the clause 'if indeed one should call him a man' makes good sense as a Christian response to Josephus' description of Jesus as (merely) a 'wise man', but is hardly the sort of language a Christian would have used if writing from scratch.").
Furthermore, the phrase "wise man" is characteristically Josephan. And its context and how Josephus uses it elsewhere are especially matched to its use in the TF:
He uses the designation “wise man” sparingly, but as a term of considerable praise. King Solomon was such a wise man (Ant. 8.53), and so was Daniel (10.237). Interestingly, both men had what we might call occult powers—abilities to perform cures and interpret dreams—of the sort that Jesus is credited with in the testimonium.
(Mason, op. cit., page 171).
Leading Jewish scholar Geza Vermes agrees that there is a connection between the use of the term for Daniel and Solomon and the TF's description of Jesus:
Of these, Solomon and Daniel are the most obvious parallels to Jesus qua wise men. Both were celebrated as masters of wisdom. Hence it is not surprising to find the epithet 'teacher' follows closely the phrases under consideration in the Testimonium.
(Geza Vermes, The Jesus Notice of Josephus Re-Examined, Journal of Jewish Studies, Spring 1987, page 3).
Finally, an often overlooked argument about the use of "wise man" is that it would have a "pejorative connotation" to Christians. In 1 Corinthians 1:24, 30, the wisdom of man is put in a very negative light. In Matthew 11:25 and Luke 10:21, "the wise" are compared unfavourably to "babes." Indeed, such a term is not used by Christians in their early literature to describe Jesus. Vermes, op. cit., page 5. This adds yet more weight to the argument for partial authenticity. As Vermes concludes, "no stylistic or historical argument" can be "marshalled against the authenticity" of this phrase. (Ibid).
c. for he was a doer of wonderful works,
The term for "doer" here has been claimed not to be Josephan. But Professor Meier is aware of this argument and offers an explanation:
[I]t is used elsewhere in Josephus only in the sense of "poet"; but Josephus . . . has a fondness for resolving a simple verb into two words: a noun expressing the agent and the auxiliary verb (e.g., krites einai for the simple krinein). Moreover, Josephus uses such cognates as poieteos, 'that which is to be done," poiesis, "doing, causing" (as well as "poetry, poem"), and poietikos, 'that which causes something" (as well as "poetic").
(Meier, op. cit., page 81).
Furthermore, it is not all that unusual for ancient Greek authors to use occasionally a word in an unusual way. The undisputed epistles of Paul have their share not only of hapex legomena but also of Pauline words and phrases that Paul uses in a given passage with an unusual meaning or construction. Especially since Josephus is dealing in the Testimonium with peculiar material, drawn perhaps from a special source, we need not be surprised if his usage differs slightly at a few points.
(Meier, op. cit., page 83 (emphasis added)).
On balance therefore, there is nothing about this term that counts against authenticity.
One the other hand, Mason confirms that the term "startling/incredible deeds" (paradoxa) is Josephan: "Josephus often speaks of “marvels” and “incredible” things in the same breath, as the testimonium does. He even uses the phrase rendered “incredible deeds” in two other places, once of the prophet Elisha (Ant. 9.182; cf. 12.63)." (Mason, op. cit., page 171). Yet this term is nowhere used in the New Testament to describe Jesus' miracles. Nor is it used in early Christian literature prior to its citation by Eusebius.
The reason Christians generally avoided this term is that it could just as easily be interpreted in a neutral or even negative way, such as "controversial deeds." Professor Van Voorst notes that the phrase "is ambiguous; it can also be translated 'startling/controversial deeds.'" (Jesus Outside the New Testament, page 78). Professor Vermes notes that "paradoxa" is not an unambiguous reference to a Godly miracle. In fact, "students of Josephus seem to agree that the word best expressing his notion of 'miracle' is" a different Greek term that Vermes translates "sign." This is especially true when the issue concerns an extraordinary deed achieved by a man of God (Vermes, op. cit., page 7). Josephus does not use the unambiguous term, but uses "paradoxa." According to Vermes, "paradoxa" is simply too neutral standing alone to be a positive attestation. Though Josephus uses this term for Moses and Elisha, he goes out of his way to explain that the deeds described there were from God.
The Jesus notice, though verbally closely related to the Elisha passage, lacks a positive evaluation by Josephus. His is a fairly sympathetic but ultimately detached description: he reports traditions concerning Jesus, but he is personally not committed to them.
(Vermes, op. cit., page 8).
Such a neutral reference would be expected from Josephus, but not from any Christian interested in inserting the interpolation in the first place.
d. a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure.
The phrase "receive the truth with pleasure" is characteristically Josephan.
In particular, Thackeray, the prince of Josephan scholars, who went so far in his study of Josephus' language as to compose a lexicon to Josephus for his own use so as to see how precisely each word is used in Josephus and whether there is evidence of shifts of style in various parts of his works due to his "assistants" or to other reasons, noted that the phrase 'such people as accept the truth gladly' is characteristic of the scribe in this part of the Antiquities, since the phrase appears eight times in books 17-19 (supposedly the work of the Thucydidean assistant) and nowhere else in Josephus.
(Louis H. Feldman, "The Testimonium Flavianum, The State of the Question," Christological Perspectives, Eds. Robert F. Berkley and Sarah Edwards, page 188).
The concentration of the phrase "received the truth with pleasure" in these three chapters serves as even stronger evidence for authenticity. Furthermore, it is unlikely that a Christian would have used such a phrase to describe Jesus or Christians. As Professor Feldman notes, "Christian interpolation is unlikely, since the word in the New Testament and in early Christian writings had a pejorative connotation." (Ibid). Van Voorst agrees, "because Christians generally avoid a positive use of the word 'pleasure,' with its connotation of 'hedonism,' [] it is difficult to imagine a Christian scribe using it here about Jesus' followers." (Van Voorst, op. cit., 90).
e. He drew over to him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles.
This statement probably could not have been written by a Christian because it so obviously contradicts the portrait of Jesus' ministry in the Gospels. Indeed, it directly contradicts several assertions made by the Gospel about Jesus and Gentiles.
In the whole of John's Gospels, no one clearly designated a Gentile ever interacts directly with Jesus; the very fact that Gentiles seek to speak to Jesus is a sign to him that the hour of his passion, which alone makes a universal mission possible, is at hand (John 12:20-26). In Matthew's Gospels, where a few exceptions to the rule are allowed . . . we find a pointedly programmatic saying in Jesus' mission charge to the Twelve: 'Go not to the Gentiles, and do not enter a Samaritan city; rather, go only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel" (Matthew 10:5-6). The few gentiles who do come into contact with Jesus are not objects of Jesus' missionary outreach; they rather come to him unbidden and humble, realizing they are out place. For Matthew, they point forward to the universal mission, which begins only after Jesus' death and resurrection (28:16-20). While Mark and Luke are not as explicit as Matthew on this point, they basically follow the same pattern: during his public ministry, Jesus does not undertake any formal mission to the Gentiles; the few who come to him do so by way of exception.
Hence the implication of the Testimonium that Jesus equally won a large following among both Jews and Gentiles simply contradicts the clear statements about the Gospels. Unless we want to fantasize about a Christian interpolator who is intent on inserting a summary of Jesus' ministry into Josephus and who nevertheless wishes to contradict what the Gospels say about Jesus' ministry, the obvious conclusion to draw is that the core of the Testimonium comes from a nonChristian hand, namely, Josephus'. Understandably, Josephus simply retrojected the situation of his own day, into the time of Jesus. Naive retrojection is a common trait of Greco-Roman historians.
(Meier, op. cit., page 64-65).
Accordingly, this statement is much more likely to be authentic to Josephus than a Christian invention. The notion that it served some apologetic purpose of Eusebius, as argued by Olson and Kirby, is erroneous. As I suggest below, Olson's theory of Eusebian interpolation is unpersuasive and his explanation of Eusebius' use of TF for apologetic purposes is particularly misguided. Moreover, it fails to account for Josephus' substantial influence on Eusebius. (See, Eusebius, The History of the Church, ed. Andrew Louth, page 382).
f. He was the Christ,
This is clearly an interpolation using blatantly New Testament language about Jesus. A Jew such as Josephus would not refer to Jesus as the Messiah. But, if a Christian had written the entire TF, he would likely have placed this phrase earlier in the passage. As Meier notes:
"He was the Messiah" seems out of place in its present position and disturbs the flow of thought. If it were present at all, one would expect it to occur immediately after either "Jesus" or "wise man," where the further identification would make sense.
Meier, op. cit., page 60.
Some scholars have argued that this phrase originally was "he was thought to be the Christ," but that the interpolator changed it because he could not let such a statement stand. "And if ... Josephus had written 'he was the so-called Christ' (ho legomenos Christos), it would have been natural for a Christian reviser to leave out legomenos." (France, op. cit., page 30). Although Meier disagrees, such a tentative phrase would actually make sense after explaining the nature of Jesus' ministry. And it would especially make sense as an explanation that Jesus had "gained a following both among Jews and among many of Greek origin." So, while "he was the Christ" is obviously not original to the text and is out of place, it is possible -- perhaps likely -- that the TF originally stated that "he was thought to be the Christ." Indeed, based on the manuscript evidence, this reconstruction is likely.
g. and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the cross,
The mention of Pilate is neutral, as it would be used by a Jewish historian or a Christian familiar with the Gospel narratives. Thus, it does not favour either theory.
The reference to "principal men" is very common in Josephus, but has no counterpart in the Gospels or in any other early Christian literature. A Christian would be much more likely to refer to "the Jews" or "the Sanhedrin", or even the "Sadducees" and/or "Pharisees." Accordingly, it is typically and uniquely Josephan. As for the phrase "among us," it is often used by Josephus (Preface of Antiquities 1.3; Antiquities 10.2.2; 12.6.2; 14.10.1; 15.3.2; and 15.10.5).
Steve Mason has argued that the phrase "principal men among us" is unusual because Josephus elsewhere only uses the phrase "principal men" to refer "of Jerusalem" or "of the city." (Mason, op. cit., page 169). Yet this provides little support for the total interpolation theory. As Mason himself admits, "Josephus often speaks of the “leading men” among the Jews with the phrase used in the testimonium, especially in book 18 of Antiquities (17.81; 18.7, 99, 121, 376)." (Mason, op. cit., page 169). That this phrase has a higher concentration of occurrences in Book 18 is credible evidence that we have here a stylistic occurrence that attests to heavy influence of one of Josephus' assistants, or at least a peculiar focus on the term by Josephus in Book 18. Given the unusual focus on that phrase in this Book, it is not surprising that it would find itself used in conjunction with the very common Josephan phrase "among us." Notably, Mason does not find this usage as in any way conclusive as evidence against partial authenticity. As he notes, "although some of the language in the testimonium is odd, we have no linguistic basis for dismissing the whole paragraph." (Mason, op. cit., page 170). Indeed, Mason favors the partial interpolation theory (Ibid., page 171).
Finally, unlike the Gospels, this phrase simply notes that Jesus was crucified at the instigation of some of the leading Jewish men. This bland reference makes more sense for Josephus than it would for a Christian writer, who would be more eager to describe how their motives in killing Jesus were improper or at least unjustified.
h. those that loved him at the first did not forsake him;
Steve Mason argues that the phrase "they did not forsake" must be "be completed by the translator, for it is left incomplete in the text; the action which his followers ceased must be understood from the preceding phrase. This is as peculiar in Greek as it is in English, and such a construction is not found elsewhere in Josephus' writing." Mason, op. cit., page 169. Two other scholars, however, note that this phrase is characteristic of Josephus. Professor Van Voorst states that "'Those who had first loved him did not cease [doing so]' is characteristically Josephan in style...." (Van Voorst, Op. cit., page 90). Professor Yamuchi similarly notes that this phrase "conforms to Josephus' characteristic style." (Edwin M. Yamuchi, "Jesus Outside the New Testament" in Jesus Under Fire, Eds. Michael J. Wilkin and J.P. Moreland, page 213).
Perhaps the reason that it appears to be "left incomplete in the text" is because the text itself is deficient. Such omissions are common in the Antiquities textual tradition. Citing a study by G.L. Richards in the Journal of Theological Studies (xliii, page 70, 1941), F.F. Bruce notes, "[i]t has also been pointed out that omission of words and short phrases is characteristic of the textual tradition of the Antiquities . . . ." (Bruce, The New Testament Documents, page 109). At present, therefore, there seems to be insufficient reason to doubt that this passage is Josephan.
i. for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him.
This is a clear Christian confession, akin to the creedal "according to the scriptures" of 1 Corinthians. 15:5. But at least part of it fits with Josephus' style:
Although the phrase “divine prophets” sounds peculiar at first, there is a close parallel in Josephus’ description of Isaiah (Antiquities. 10.35). Even the word used for what the prophets “announced” is commonly used by Josephus in conjunction with prophecy.
(Mason, op. cit., page 171).
So part of this phrase shows Josephan characteristics, but as presently articulated has at least been altered by a Christian scribe. Perhaps the best solution is the reconstruction proposed by Robert Eisler: "For it seemed to his followers that having been dead for three days, he had appeared to them alive again, as the divinely inspired prophets had foretold." (Eisler, The Messiah Jesus and John the Baptist, page 61). By attributing the belief in resurrection to his followers, rather than himself, Josephus would simply be noting one of the main beliefs of the Christians.
j. And the tribe of Christians so named from him are not extinct at this day.
Use of the phrase "the tribe of" has been recognized by many scholars as being typical of Josephus. Even uniquely so. But Kirby relies on Steve Mason to argue that this phrase is "peculiar":
Josephus uses the word "tribe" (phyle) eleven other times. Once it denotes "gender," and once a "swarm" of locusts, but usually signifies distinct people, races, or nationalities: the Jews are a "tribe" (War 3.354; 7.327) as are the Taurians (War 2.366) and Parthians (War 2.379). It is very strange that Josephus should speak of the Christians as a distinct racial group, since he has just said that Jesus was a Jew condemned by Jewish leaders. (Notice, however, that some Christian authors of a later period came to speak of Christianity as a "third race.").
(Mason, op. cit., pages 169-70).
As even Mason's own examples show, however, Josephus does not restrict his usage of the phrase "the tribe of" to "distinct racial group[s]." (emphasis added). Nor do I find it reasonable to argue that Josephus would have thought of Christians simply as Jews. After all, though Jesus was a Jew, the TF is quite clear that Christians were both Jews and Greeks. Thus, they were not simply a Jewish sect in Josephus' eyes but a group that was distinct from the Jews and the Greeks. Given that the phrase "tribe of" is used with diversity in Josephus -- referring to a variety of groups, to females, and to locusts -- there is nothing unusual about its use here. Indeed, it is hard to take seriously the notion that Josephus would have felt free to use the phrase "tribe of" to describe bugs but not Christians. Thus, the phrase "tribe of" used by Josephus to describe Christians should be seen as characteristically Josephan.
Furthermore, "calling Christians a 'tribe' would also be unusual for a Christian scribe; a follower of a missionizing faith would be uncomfortable with the more narrow, particularistic implications of this word." (Van Voorst, op. cit., page 90). As Van Voorst notes, Eusebius -- whose writings were heavily influenced by Josephus' -- was the first Christian to use such a term for Christians. Accordingly, it is more reasonable to believe that Josephus applies this term to Christians than it is to suspect an early Christian interpolator invented it.
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09-18-2011, 12:57 AM
