To declare or prove to be false.

c1449 PECOCK Repr. I. x. 50 To falsifie this present xiije conclusioun. 1570-6 LAMBARDE Peramb. Kent (1826) 221 He shall have cause neither to falsifie the one opinion lightly nor [etc.]. 1805 T. JEFFERSON Writ. (1830) IV. 42 No man can falsify any material fact here stated. 1849 STOVEL Canne's Necess. Introd. 9 Relinquishing all claim to respect by falsifying their own affirmations. 1876 MOZLEY Univ. Serm. i. (1877) 23 The rights of conscience belong so much to the morality of society now, that they must falsify any moral creed opposed to them.

b. esp. in Law (see quots.). to falsify a doom (Sc.): = to false a doom; see FALSE v. 5.

1574 tr. Littleton's Tenures 33a, It shall not lye in the mouthe of the tenaunte to falsifye or defete the recoverie which was againste his Lord. 1628 COKE On Litt. 104b, To falsifie in legall understanding is to prove false, that is, to avoid or..to defeat. 1642 tr. Perkins's Prof. Bk. v. §382. 165 His wife shall falsifie this recovery in a writ of dower. 1817 W. SELWYN Law Nisi Prius (ed. 4) II. 945 The sentence was conclusive evidence to falsify the warranty. 1854 J. W. SMITH Man. Equity 210 To give liberty to..falsify the account.

c. To fail in fulfilling, or prevent the fulfilment of (a prediction, expectation, etc.).

1596 SHAKES. 1 Hen. IV, I. ii. 235 By so much shall I falsifie mens hopes. a1719 ADDISON Evid. Christ. viii. (1730) 66 Jews and Pagans united all their endeavours..to baffle and falsify the prediction. 1851 W. COLLINS Rambles beyond Railw. vii. (1852) 124 The prognostications of our Cornish friends were pleasantly falsified. 1884 L'pool Daily Post 10 July 5 To consider..whether we are contented to falsify his high regard for us.

ἐπίσκοπος, ου, ὁ (Hom.+; inscr., pap., LXX, Philo, Joseph.—LPorter, The Word ἐπίσκοπος in Pre-Christian Usage: ATR 21, ’39, 103-12) overseer.
1. of God (so Il. 22, 255; Aeschyl., Sept. 272; Soph., Ant. 1148; Pla., Leg. 4, 717d; Plut., Cam. 5, 6 θεοὶ χρηστῶν ἐπίσκοποι καὶ πονηρῶν ἔργων; Maximus Tyr. 5, 8e ὦ Ζεῦ κ. Ἄπολλον, ἐθῶν ἀνθρωπίνων ἐπίσκοποι; Babrius 11, 4; Herodian 7, 10, 3. Oft. Cornutus, ed. Lang, index;(Dit., Syll.3 1240, 21; UPZ 144, 49 [164 bc]; PGM 4, 2721; Job 20:29; Wsd 1:6; Philo, Migr. Abr. 115 al.; Sib. Or., fgm. 1, 3) παντὸς πνεύματος κτίστης κ. ἐπίσκοπος creator and guardian of every spirit 1 Cl 59:3.—Of Christ (w. ποιμήν) ἐ. τῶν ψυχῶν guardian of the souls 1 Pt 2:25. The passages IMg 3:1 θεῷ τῷ πάντων ἐ.; cf. 6:1 show the transition to the next mng.

2. of persons who have a definite function or a fixed office within a group (Aristoph., Av. 1023; IG XII 1, 49, 43ff [II/I bc], 50, 34ff [I bc]; Wadd. 1989; 1990; 2298; Num 31:14 al.; PPetr. III 36 (a) verso 16 [III bc]; Jos., Ant. 10, 53; 12, 254), including a religious group (IG XII 1, 731, 8: an ἐ. in the temple of Apollo at Rhodes. S. Dssm., NB 57f [BS 230f]. Cf. also Num 4:16. On the Cynic-Stoic preacher as ἐπισκοπῶν and ἐπίσκοπος s. ENorden, Jahrbücher f. klass. Philol. Suppl. 19, 1893, 377ff.—Philo, Rer. Div. Her. 30 Moses as ἐ.); superintendent, guardian, bishop Ac 20:28 (RSchnackenburg, Schriften zum NT, ’71, 247-67); (w. διάκονοι) Phil 1:1; D 15:1; 1 Ti 3:2; Tit 1:7 (cf. BSEaston, Pastoral Epistles ’47, 173; 177; 227). ἀπόστολοι, ἐ., διδάσκαλοι, διάκονοι Hv 3, 5, 1; (w. φιλόξενοι) s 9, 27, 2. Esp. freq. in Ignatius IEph 1:3; 2:1f; 3:2; 4:1; 5:1f and oft.; 2 Ti subscr.: Tim., bishop of the Ephesians; Tit subscr., Titus bishop of the Cretans.—EHatch-AHarnack, D. Gesellschaftsverf. d. christ. Kirchen im Altert. 1883; Harnack, D. Lehre d. 12 Apostel 1884, 88ff, Entstehung u. Entwicklung der Kirchenverfassung u. des Kirchenrechts in d. zwei ersten Jahrh. ’10; ELoening, D. Gemeindeverf. d. Urchristent. 1888; CWeizsäcker, D. apost. Zeitalter2 1892, 613ff; RSohm, Kirchenrecht I 1892; JRéville, Les origines de l’épiscopat 1894; HBruders, D. Verf. d. Kirche bis z. J. 175, ’04; RKnopf, D. nachapostl. Zeitalter ’05, 147ff; PBatiffol-FXSeppelt, Urkirche u. Katholicismus ’10, 101ff; OScheel, Z. urchristl. Kirchen-u. Verfassungsproblem: StKr 85, ’12, 403-57; HLietzmann, Z. altchr. Verfassungsgesch.: ZWTh 55, ’13, 101-6 (=Kleine Schriften I, ’58, 144-8); EMetzner, D. Verf. d. Kirche in d. zwei ersten Jahrh.’20; KMüller, Beiträge z. Gesch. d. Verf. in d. alten Kirche: ABA ’22, no. 3; HDieckmann, D. Verf. d. Urkirche ’23; GvHultum, ThGl 19, ’27, 461-88; GHolstein, D. Grundlagen d. evangel. Kirchenrechts ’28; JoachJeremias, Jerusalem II B 1, ’29, 132ff (against him KGGoetz, ZNW 30, ’31, 89-93); BHStreeter, The Primitive Church ’29; OLinton, D. Problem d. Urkirche usw. ’32 (lit. from 1880); JLebreton et JZeiller, L’Eglise primitive ’34; HBeyer, D. Bischofamt im NT: Deutsche Theologie 1, ’34, 201-25, TW II ’35, 604-19; HGreeven, Propheten, Lehrer, Vorsteher bei Pls: ZNW 44, ’52/’53, 1-43 (lit.); HvCampenhausen, Kirchl. Amt u. geistl. Vollmacht in den ersten 3 Jahrhunderten ’53; WMichaelis, Das Ältestenamt der christlichen Gemeinde im Lichte der Hl. Schrift ’53; RBultmann, Theol. of the NT (transl. KGrobel) ’55, II, 95-111; TWManson, The Church’s Ministry ’56; FNötscher, Vom Alten zum NT ’62, 188-220; DMoody, Interpretation 19, ’65, 168-81; HBraun, Qumran u. das NT ’66, II 326-42; RGG3 I 335-7 (lit.); JAFitzmyer, PSchubert-Festschr., ’66, 256f, n. 41 (lit.). M-M.**

�* ἐπίσκοπος.

A. ἐπίσκοπος in non-biblical Greek.*
The word ἐπίσκοπος is best rendered “overseer” or “watch.” From this original sense there develops a twofold use which only reunites In a stronger form on Christian soil. In Gk. ἐπίσκοπος is first used a. with a tree understanding of the “onlooker” as “watcher,” “protector,” “patron.” His activity then takes the form of the different senses of ἐπισκ�*πτομαι, and esp. ἐπισκοπ�*ω, in a gracious looking down upon the one protected and in care for him. Therewith the word ἐπίσκοπος comes to be used b. as a title to denote various offices. The official activities thus described vary, and are usually not too important. In this sense, the word has no religious significance, but is used almost exclusively for very secular appointments with technical and financial responsibilities. On the other hand, behind the sense of “watcher” or “protector” is a religious conception expressed in the fact that it is usually gods who bear this designation.

1. Gods as ἐπίσκοποι.
Where the Greek detected a superhuman force, he assumed a god. The Gk. gods are personified forces,1 participant in the original force which rules over all. They are thus related to those parts of the creaturely world which are nearest to them and which stand under their protection, whether individuals accepted by them, classes, cities, peoples, places, springs, groves etc. The deity watches over men or things committed to its protection. It cares for them and even fights for them against other gods or powers. The spheres of social life receive their sanctity and their binding seriousness from the fact that deities rule over them. In this quality and activity of a patron the god can be called ἐπίσκοπος. For this word expresses the heart of the relationship, namely, that the god gives particular attention to the object of his patronage. He rules as watcher over the orders which stand under his protection.

Thus in Hom. Il., 22, 254 f. the gods are called watchers over treaties sanctifying their inviolability: μάρτυποι ἔσσονται καὶ ἐπίσκοποι ἁρμονιάων. The same combination of two concepts which later played so great a role in the Christian Church is found also in Herodian Hist., VII, 10, 3, where Zeus is called μάρτυς καὶ ἐπίσκοπος τῶν πραττομ�*νων. In Pind. Olymp., 14, 5 the Charites, the goddesses of Orchomenos, are extolled as protectors of the Minyans, the inhabitants of the city. Aesch. Sept. c. Theb., 271 f. describes the gods as protectors of the market as well as patrons of the city or country: χώρας τοῖς πολισσούχοις θεοῖς πεδιονόμοις τε κἀγορᾶς ἐπισκόποις … That the gods are not merely guardians but also avengers who punish wrong may be seen from the prayer of Electra in Aesch. Choeph., 124 ff., whether we read πατρώιων αἱμάτων ἐπισκόπους with Wilamowitz-Moellendorff or πατρώιων δʼ ὀμμάτων (or δωμάτων) ἐπισκόπους with Ahrens. Electra trusts that the gods will take up the cause of the murdered father and be gracious to the avenger. Nemesis, the messenger of Dike, is appointed ἐπίσκοπος to take note of the offences of children against their parents: Plat. Leg., IV, 717d. Similarly, on an inscr. of the 2nd cent. a.d. the violator of graves is threatened with the Furies as ἐπίσκοποι, but the wish is expressed in relation to the well-disposed: ἐπισκοποίη δὲ Χάρις καὶΨ̔γεία, IG, XII, 9, 1179, 30 ff. (2nd cent. a.d.). Cf. also IG, XII, 9, 955, 10 ff. The δαιμόνιον can also assume the role of ἐπίσκοπος, P. Par., 63, col. IX, 47 ff. (2nd cent. b.c.). Bacchus is called νυχίων φθεγμάτων ἐπίσκοπος in Soph. Ant., 1148. Pallas Athene holds out her hands over the city as ἐπίσκοπος, Demosth. Or., 421 (ed. J. Bekker, 1854). Callimachus in Hymn., III, 39 calls Artemis ἀγυιαῖς καὶ λιμ�*νεσσιν ἐπίσκοπος.2 The latter term is conjoined with λιμενόσκοπος in III, 259. Artemis is also called ἐπίσκοπος in Plut. Quaest. Graec., 47 (II, 302c). Acc. to Anth. Pal., IX, 22 pregnant women stand under her protection.
In a very comprehensive way Plut. in De Camillo, 5 (I, 131 f.) calls Zeus and the gods watchers over all evil and good deeds, so that Thes. Steph. thought the term could best be explained by reference to Hes. Op., 267: πάντα ἰδὼν Διὸς ὀφθαλμὸς καὶ πάντα νοήσας. In fact, in the description of a deity as ἐπίσκοπος we can see the ancient idea of the eye of God scrutinising the acts of men even to the hidden details. In Sext. Emp. Math., IX, 54 we have the corresponding tradition according to which ancient legislators thought of the deity as a watcher (ἐπίσκοπος) over the good works and sins of men, so that none can do ill to his neighbour secretly but must always fear the punishment of the gods. Cf. also Plut. De Fato, 9 (II, 573a).
There is in Cornut. a consistent outworking of the conception that each god has his own sphere of oversight, protection and retribution. Here Zeus and Pallas Athene are the patrons of cities, Theol. Graec. (ed. C. Lang, 1881), 20 (p. 38, 1, Lang), while Pan (27, p. 50, 11), Poseidon (22, p. 44, 2), Apollo (32, p. 68, 4), Dionysus (30, p. 57, 17), and Hermes (16, p. 25, 3) are protective lords over different spheres, and Erato (14, p. 16, 18) is the protectress of the power of dialectical debate.

2. Men as Overseers, Watchers, Scouts.
With the same basic meaning as it has when used of the gods, ἐπίσκοπος can also be applied to the activity of men. But here the sense is not so definite, and can be worked out in many different connections. Protective care, however, is still the heart of the activity which men pursue as ἐπίσκοποι, so that Thes. Steph., s.v. can give the general definition: qui rei alicui curandae praefectus est.

On the border between the human and the divine stands the fabulous creature Argos, who is appointed a watcher acc. to Hes. Fr., 188 (Rzach), and who looks around in all directions with his four eyes. Watchers guard a corpse in Soph. Ant., 217. A dragon is the watcher over Dirce, Eur. Phoen., 932. Plato demands that the νομοφύλακες should be ἐπίσκοποι who see to it that there are no transgressions, Leg., VI, 762d. He describes righteousness itself as a watcher, Leg., IX, 872e. Solon acc. to Plut. De Solone, 19 (I, 88d) appointed an assembly as ἐπίσκοπον πάντων καὶ φύλακα τῶν νόμων.
ἐπίσκοπος is also used in the sense of an “overseer” over goods as the work of a ship’s captain or merchant in Hom. Od., 8, 163. Women should be overseers over young married couples, Plat. Leg., VI, 784a. Cf. also VII, 795d. Market overseers have to rule as ἐπίσκοποι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ ὕβρεως, as those who are called to judge what is fair dealing and what is improper, VIII, 849a. Phidias is an overseer over the Periclean buildings, Plut. Pericl., 13 (I, 159e) (→ 613).

The δωμάτων ἐπίσκοπος rules as master of the house, Aesch. Eum., 740.
Hector fell as protector of Troy, Hom. Il., 24 729 f.
Finally, ἐπίσκοπος can mean a “scout” or “spy,” Hom. Il., 10, 38; 342; Soph. Oed. Col., 112.

3. The Cynic as ἐπισκοπῶν and ἐπίσκοπος.
The terms ἐπισκοπῶν and ἐπίσκοπος are used in a special sense in Cynic philosophy.3 If we are to understand them correctly, we must consider how the forms derived from ἐπισκεπ- relate to the linguistically connected but materially different κατάσκοπος. This is the main word for the Cynic in Epict. Epict. does not think of himself as a philosopher in the sense of quiet reflection on the riddles of the universe, but rather in the sense of having a divine mission in the world as a prophet and preacher of repentance who intervenes in the lives of his fellows and is thus passionately involved in this life. This mission finds linguistic expression in the designations ἄγγελος καὶ κατάσκοπος καὶ κῆρυξ τῶν θεῶν, Epict. Diss., III, 22, 69, or ἄγγελος καὶ κατάσκοπος, ibid., 22, 38. He is the messenger of the gods to the extent that he is conscious of being sent by them.4 He is their herald and proclaimer because he declares the divine judgment on men. And between these two designations he is also the κατάσκοπος τῶν θεῶν. This has two senses, both of which rest on the literal meaning “spy.” In the first place, the Cynic investigates “what is friendly to man and what is hostile,” III, 22, 24. He thus strives for perception of the truth as the basis of moral and rational conduct. “When he has accurately discerned this, he must return and declare what is true,” III, 22, 25. Secondly, it is the task of the Cynic preacher to test men, whether their lives conform to the truth which has been perceived.

For this testing activity of the Cynic the word ἐπισκοπεῖν is occasionally used instead of κατασκ�*πτεσθαι, III, 22, 72; 77; 97. It consists in the fact that the wandering preacher so far as he is able considers and tests all men, what they do, how they conduct their lives, what they are concerned about, where they fail in the fulfilment of their duty. “In this manner he goes to all; in this manner he cares for all.” In the same sense we are told in Dio Chrys. Or., 9, 1 that Diogenes went to the Isthmian games, not to compete, ἀλλʼ ἐπισκοπῶν ὀ͂μαι τοὺς ἀνθρώπους καὶ τὴν ἄνοιαν αὐτῶν. Acc. to Luc. Dialogi Mortuorum, 10, 2, Hermes says to Menippus: ἔμβαινε (in the ferry-boat of Charon) … καὶ τὴν προεδρίαν παρὰ τὸν κυβερνήτην ἔχε ἐφʼ ὑψηλοῦ, ὡς ἐπισκοπῇς ἅπαντας. The significant point is, however, that neither Epict. nor others in his day used the term ἐπίσκοπος to describe this activity. The word κατάσκοπος is always employed. The reason may well be that ἐπίσκοπος generally denoted the watcher over an existing and well-defined sphere. Only in the 3rd cent. a.d., and on the basis of later ideas is ἐπίσκοπος once used in the same way as Epict. uses κατάσκοπος (→ I, 409, n. 19). The Cynic Menedemus, acc. to the account in Diog. L., VI, 102, disguised himself as a Fury and announced that he was an investigator of men’s sins (ἐπίσκοπος) who had been sent from Hades and who had to return to the gods of Hades with a report on what he had seen. But this is an isolated case.5 This use of ἐπίσκοπος and ἐπισκοπῶν had no historical influence.

4. ἐπίσκοπος as a Designation of Office.
In ancient Greece the word ἐπίσκοπος was used in many different ways to describe those who held various official positions in respect of their office and work.

a. In Athens in the 4th and 5th cent. ἐπίσκοπος is a title for state officials. We know this especially from Aristophanes, who in Av., 1022 f. tells of the arrival of an ἐπίσκοπος in the bird kingdom Cloud Cuckoo Land. That he is alluding to real historical models is proved by glosses on his poetry and by inscriptions on which the office appears as depicted by Aristophanes. Acc. to Harpocration, s.v.6 the ἐπίσκοποι were supervisors sent by the Athenians to the cities of subject members of the Attic League. They were chosen by lot from Athenian candidates and then sent to their respective cities, where they were in some sense governors, though there is uncertainty as to the exact scope of their office.7 Their main concern was for public order and for the avoidance of friction with Athens. It is likely that they also had some judicial powers.8 They were maintained by the city in which they officiated. That they were not loved may be gathered from the caricature in Aristophanes. An instance of their work may be seen on inscriptions from Erythrae, IG, I, 10 and 11.9 In 465 b.c. a new constitution was being set up there,10 and officials from Athens, the phrurarch as the military commander and the ἐπίσκοποι as civil officials, played a part in the arrangements, appointing the first assembly of the new order, for which the retiring assembly and the phrurarch were later responsible. This does not mean, however, that the ἐπίσκοποι were sent only for a short time. We know that they were permanent officials in Mytilene:11 Ditt. Syll.3, 76 (427/6 b.c.).

b. We also read of such state officials elsewhere. Thus Appian. Rom. Hist., Mithridateios, 48 tells us that Mithridates appointed Philopoimen ἐπίσκοτον Ἐφεσίων. According to Arrian Hist. Indica, 12, 5 there were also ἐπίσκοποι in different parts of India, their responsibilities being those of a secret police. The pap. tell us that there were ἐπίσκοποι in Egypt too. Thus in P. Petr., III, No. 36a, 17 (3rd cent. b.c.) we read: δίκαιον δώσουσιν καὶ λήμψονται ἐπὶ τῶν ἀποδεδειγμ�*νων ἐπισκόπων οἷς ἂν ὁ διοικητὴς συντάσσῃ. Here the ἐπίσκοποι seem to have discharged, or supervised, judicial functions. There is also reference to ἐπίσκοποι in P. Freiburg, 8, 11 (J. Partsch, Mitt. aus der Freiburger Papyrussammlung, 2 [SAH, 1916, Abh. 10], 195/6 a.d.). Cf. also P. Oxy., II, 237, Col. IV, 10 (186 a.d.). In one instance the officer in charge of the Ephesian mint is called ἐπίσκοπος on a coin from the time of Claudius, with the addition that he is occupying the post for the fourth time; elsewhere he is described as ἄρχων or γραμματεύς.12

c. More commonly the ἐπίσκοποι are local officials or the officers of societies. Theological research has shown more interest in this usage, since it is felt that here we have the basis of the Christian use, especially when the responsibilities concerned are related to the cultus. In this case, however, while the term is undoubtedly used, and it relates to a work of supervision or control, there is no strict definition of what is involved and the term is never used with precision.

The jurist Charisius (c. 340 a.d.) lists among municipal officials the episcopi, qui praesunt pani et ceteris venalibus rebus, quae civitatum populis ad cotidianum victum usui sunt.13 In other words, they supervise the poor relief of the city. In Megalopolis (IG, V, 2, lst/2nd cent. a.d.) there is reference to an ἐπίσκοπος καὶ φύλαξ τῆς τῶν πολειτῶν σωφροσύνης, though here we cannot be sure whether an official is meant or an apostle of morality after the manner of the Cynics. From Rhodes (2nd cent. b.c.) we have two different lists of officials similar to those on which διάκονος occurs as an official designation (→ 91 f.). On one of these there is reference to the πρυτάνιες (president), στραταγοί (praetor, an honorary title), ταμίαι (treasurer), γραμματεῖς (secretary), ἐπίσκοποι, a γραμματεὺς βουλᾶς, a ὐπογραμματεύς, ἐπιμεληταὶ τῶν ξ�*νων , a ἀγεμὼν ἐπὶ Καύνου (IG, XII, 1, 49, 42 ff. == Ditt. Syll.3, 619; 50, 34 ff.). The reference is obviously to civic officials, though it is not clear how the duties of the prytanes, praetors, treasurers, secretaries and overseers are to be differentiated. On the one list there are five ἐπίσκοποι and on the other three. It is worth noting that διάκονοκι and ἐπίσκοποι are never mentioned in the same context.

On the sources thus far adduced there is no sign of any religious connection. In IG, XII, 1, 731, however, we obviously have a list of the officials of a society for the maintenance of the sanctuary of Apollo at Rhodes. This refers to three ἐπιστάται (presidents), a γραμματεὺς ἱεροφυλάκων (secretary of the keepers of the temple), an ἐπίσκοπος,14 six ἱεροποιοί (inspectors of the sacrifices), a ταμίας and a ὑπογραμματεὺς ἱεροφυλάκων. Most of them have no direct cultic responsibilities. Indeed, this can be said only of the ἱεροποιοί, who must watch over the sacrifices. On the other hand, they fulfil the temporal tasks which underlie the cultic activity of a society. This is made quite clear by the inscr. IG, XII, 3, 329 (2nd cent. b.c.). A cultic society to honour Anthister on the island of Thera resolves to accept a benefaction and instructs the two episcopi Dion and Melehippus to invest the money. These are obviously in charge of financial transactions. Subordinate cultic obligations are discharged by the ἐπίσκοπος on another inscr. of the Roman period found in Dolistovo in Bulgaria.15 Here we read: Οἴκῳ θείῳ κὲ τοῖς Ὀλυμπίοις θεοῖς οἱ ἱερῖς … there then follow ten names … Ἀπολλῶνις οἴκουρος (keeper of the house), Ὀρφεὺς μακελλάρις (macellarius, in charge of the sacrificial meat), Ἐπτ�*ξενις ἐπίσκοπος, Μεστίκενθος κάπηλος (dealer, probably in idols). It is evident that the ἐπίσκοπος is not one of the priests, but one of those who have purely external duties in the cultic society. The same is true when the society of the Alexichites in Myconos instructs its ἐπίσκοπος, who seems to have been a kind of secretary, to proclaim a festival which it has resolved to celebrate.16 In sum, we may say with E. Ziebarth:17 “One of the distinctive features of the terminology of Greek societies is that there is no definition of the designations used. The ἐπίσκοποι, like the ἐπιμεληταί, are simply officers who exercise supervision and control.”

In Plut. De Numa, 9 (I, 66b) we read that the Roman pontifex was τῶν παρθ�*νων ἱερῶν ἐπίσκοπος. Obviously this does not denote an office, particularly of a cultic nature. It simply describes his task in relation to the Vestal Virgins. Even in pagan times the word piscopus was borrowed in Latin, being used sometimes to describe supervisory officials of state.18
d. Finally, there is a usage of ἐπίσκοπος for an official which is particularly attested in Syria. An inscr. in Canata (253 a.d.) runs as follows:19 ὑπὲρ σωτηρίας τῶν κυπίων, ἐπισκοπούντων Ἀν�*μου Σαβίνου καὶ Βαυλάνης Ὀδενίθου καὶ �*ασίφιλος Καμασάνου, ἐκτίσθη ὁ οἶκος ἐκ φιλοτιμίας τῆς κώμης ἐξ ὧξ ἔδωκεν Ἰουλιανὸς Διονυσίου. The last named has given an endowment to his community. With the money the village is erecting a public building (the stone may still be seen in the ruins of a mosque), which in proof of loyalty is to be dedicated to the two ruling emperors. The other three mentioned constitute a building commission.20 Their duties appear more clearly on an inscr. in Der’at.21 There a distinction is drawn between the part played by the Roman legates who initiate the building (προνοίᾳ Στατιλίου …), an imperial equerry who perhaps takes the chair (ἐφεστῶτος Ἰουλίου …) in the society which undertakes the building, the architect Verus who is really in charge of the construction (ὑφηγουμ�*νου Οὐήρου ἀρχιτ�*κτονος) and three others who supervise the building (ἐπισκοπῇ Αἰλίου Βάσσου …).22 From this it may be seen that the ἐπισκοπή does not involve any constructional responsibility but merely supervision of the course of the work in the interests of the builders, and possibly control of the money allocated to the task. It is along these lines that we are to explain the activity of all the other ἐπίσκοποι who are mentioned in the same connection on Syrian building inscr.: Waddington (→ n. 19), 1911, 1989, 1990 (4 ἐπίσκοποι, who obviously control the temple funds), 2298, 2308 (referring to the building of an aqueduct and a temple of Athene, the ἐπισκοπή being exercised, not by specific individuals, but by the magistrate of a particular quarter of the city); also 2309, 2310, 2412e; cf. also Syria, Publications of the Princeton Univ. Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904/1905 and 1909, Divolumen, III, Section A, 37, 220 (better completed ἐπιμελομ�*νους ἐπισκόπους than τοὺς τοῦ τεμ�*νους), 222 (with the form ἐπισκοπία), Sect. B, 1003, 1187, 1199. Naturally, the Christian bishops often mentioned on building inscr. after the 4th cent. are not to be confused with these overseers.23 Ditt. Or., II, 611 tells us that a certain Μενν�*ας was ἐπίσκοπος πάντων τῶν ἐνθάδε γεγονότων ἔργων (→ also 610).

B. ἐπίσκοπος in Judaism.

1. God as ἐπίσκοπος.
The LXX uses ἐπίσκοπος in the same twofold way as secular Greek. On the one hand it denotes God, and on the other it has the general sense of supervisors in different fields. If in polytheistic belief each deity acts as ἐπίσκοπος over certain men and things, the one God does this far more comprehensively. He is the absolute ἐπίσκοπος who sees all things.
Thus at Job 20:29 the LXX renders the Heb. אֵל by ἐπίσκοπος. As such God is Judge of the ungodly. The term is here brought into relation to κύριος. Philo has the same line of thought. He calls God ἔφορος καὶ ἐπίσκοπος in Mut. Nom., 39, 216. The combination μάρτυς καὶ ἐπίσκοπος, already used by Homer, is also found in Philo at Leg. All., III, 43. In this capacity God is the One from whom no wickedness can be hidden. ὁ τῶν ὅλων ἐπίσκοπος is the Omniscient, Som., I, 91. Thus on Philo’s view Moses finely introduces God in the first chapter of the Bible as “the Father of all and the Contemplator of all that has come into being.” This judgment rests on the statement that “God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, it was very good,” Migr. Abr., 135. In Jewish thought this profound understanding of God as the One who sees all things produced the term πανεπίσκοπος, which occurs more than once in the Sibyllines: 1, 152: πάντα γὰρ οἶδεν ἀθάνατος σωτὴρ πανεπίσκοπος;24 2, 177: ὕψιστος πάντων πανεπίσκοπος; 5, 352: θεὸς πανεπίσκοπος οὐρανόθι.

In particular, God sees into the human heart. In this respect the LXX links μάρτυς and ἐπίσκοπος at Wis. 1:6: τῶν νεφρῶν αὐτοῦ (of the ungodly) μάρτυς ὁ θεὸς καὶ τῆς καρδίας αὐτοῦ ἐπίσκοπος ἀληθὴς καὶ τῆς γλώσσης ἀκουστής. Cf. Ac. 1:24, where God is called καρδιογνώστης. God sees what is concealed in the soul of man, says Philo Migr. Abr., 115. God alone perceives the ἐνθυμήματα of man, Migr. Abr., 81.

2. Men as ἐπίσκοποι.
There is no closely defined office bearing the title ἐπίσκοπος in the LXX. But the term “overseer” is freely used in many different ways.
Antiochus appoints ἐπίσκοποι as governors over Israel, 1 Macc. 1:51. Abimelech appoints an “officer” in Ju. 9:28. Is. 60:17 mentions ἐπίσκοποι parallel to ἄρχοντες, though in misunderstanding of the original. “Officers” are called ἐπίσκοποι τῆς δυνάμεως at Nu. 31:14; 4 Βασ*. 11:15. There is a good counterpart to, and commentary on the Syrian building inscr. in 4 Βασ*. 12:11(12); 2 Ch. 34:12, 17. Here we are told how the money was raised for necessary repairs of the temple, and how it was placed in the hands of the episcopi as supervisors who paid it out to the various workmen and labourers. A more strongly cultic use occurs in the great list in Neh. 11:9, 14, 22 where it refers to the “overseers” of the men of Benjamin and of the priests and Levites. In 4 Βασ*. 11:18 it is used for “overseers” in the temple. In Nu. 4:16 we have reference to an office directly related to the cultus, though not itself priestly in the strict sense, when Eleazar is made “overseer” of the oil for light, the sweet incense, the daily meat offering, the anointing oil, the whole tabernacle, and everything in the holy vessels within it. Symmachus has ἐπίσκοπος at Gn. 41:34, where the LXX has τοπάρχης.
In Philo Rer. Div. Her., Moses is described as ὁ ἐπίσκοπος in the sense of “the one who knows souls.” In Som., II, 186 Eleazar and Ithamar are called ἐπίσκοποι καὶ ἔφοροι, as in Ex. 28:1.

The term is also found in Joseph., who uses it with κριτής in the sense of a “guardian of morals and law,” Ant., 10, 4, 1. Cf. 12, 5, 4: a police official.
Kittel, Gerhard (Hrsg.) ; Bromiley, Geoffrey William (Hrsg.) ; Friedrich, Gerhard (Hrsg.): Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. electronic ed. Grand Rapids, MI : Eerdmans, 1964-c1976, S. 2:608-615